Bhakti Movements in South India

The post-Sangam period witnessed some notable changes in the religious sphere. One of them was the rise of the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement emerged in the context of the economic downturn after the Sangam period. During this time, the collapse of the economic sector affected the lives of the people. This prompted people to turn to religion and philosophy.

There were also religious reasons for the rise of the Bhakti movement. Jainism and Buddhism had a good influence among the common people. In the post-Sangam period, refined Hinduism also began to gain popularity. Most of the kings of South India promoted refined Hinduism based on Vaishnavism and Shaivism. In this context, the Bhakti movement was conceived to stop the growth of Jainism and Buddhism and to bring the common people closer to Hinduism.

According to traditional Hindu thought, there are three ways to achieve salvation: the way of action, the way of knowledge, and the way of devotion. Of these, the Bhakti movement emphasized the third way. 'Bhakti' means surrendering oneself to a personal god. The founders of the Bhakti movement demanded that one accept one of the deities Vishnu and Shiva as a personal god and surrender to it. The poets and scholars who practiced the Bhakti movement composed hymns and spread their ideas in Tamil, the language of the people. Naturally, they were able to attract the common people to the Bhakti movement.

The Bhakti movement was led by the Azhwars and the Nayanars. The Azhwars were devotees of Vishnu and the Nayanars were devotees of Shiva. These Vaishnava-Saiva devotees were also first-class poets. They composed devotional hymns about their idols and went around singing them. The Bhakti movement demonstrated religious generosity. It gave the message that God was accessible to everyone, regardless of caste or religion. Therefore, the followers of the Bhakti movement included people from lower castes.

Alvars

The Alvars and Nayanars are said to have led the Bhakti movement in Tamil Nadu from the 6th to the 9th century. Literary works mention 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanars. Poyka, Putham and Pei Alvars are believed to be the first Alvars.

Thirumangai Alvars and Periyar were famous devotees of Vishnu. The Kirtans they composed were of high quality. Among the Alvars, a woman named Andal (known as Mirabai in South India) and an untouchable named Thiruppan were very notable.

One of the Azhwars was from Kerala; the Chera king Kulasekha Azhwar. His Mukundamala and Perumal Thirumozhi are devotional poems that captivate anyone. Nammarzhwar (Shatakopa) was another famous Azhwar. His kirtans in praise of the Vaishnava temples of Kerala are famous. The 4000 or so devotional songs of the Azhwars were later compiled by a Vaishnava devotee named Nathamuni under the title 'Nalayiraprabandham'.

Nayanars

There were 63 Nayanars associated with the Tamil Bhakti movement. Thirumoolar, Karaikkal Amma, and Ayyadigal Kadavarkon are the earliest Nayanars.

The Trimurti of Appar, Sambandhar and Sundarar were prominent Nayanars of the Pallava period. It was Appar who converted the Pallava king Mahendravarman to Shaivism. Sambandhar defeated many Jain scholars in debates. Sundarar composed thousands of kirtans. Two of the Nayanars were from Kerala: Cheraman Perumal Nayanar and Viralminda Nayanar. Sundaramurti Nayanar and Manikyavasaka were also famous devotees of Shiva. The 5 kirtans composed by Manikyavasaka are known as “Thiruvachakam”.

The Shaivite hymns of the Nayanars were later compiled by a Shaivite devotee named Nambi under the title “Patinonnu Thirumuraikal”. The ‘Thevaram’ (composed by Appar, Sambandhar and Sundarar) in this work greatly helped the growth of the Bhakti movement. Some famous spiritual teachers were among those who led the Bhakti movement in South India. The most important of these were Shankaracharya, Ramanujan, Madhavan and Basaveshwara.

Shankaracharya (788-820)

Advaita thinker Shankaracharya was born in Kalady on the banks of the Periyar. His parents, Shivaguru and Aryamba, were great devotees. Shankara, who took up sannyasa at a young age, visited all the major Hindu pilgrimage centers in India. During this time, he accepted Govinda Yogi, a disciple of Gaudapada, as his guru.

Shankara, who meticulously analyzed the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, developed the Advaita philosophy as indicated in them. The philosophy he formulated came to be known as “Advaita Vedanta”. Shankara engaged in controversies with many Mimamsakas and Buddhist scholars and defeated them. Thus, he proved the superiority of his philosophy and Hinduism.

Advaita Vedanta Philosophy

Sankara's philosophy is known as Advaita. It is based on the Upanishads. The basic principle of Advaita is 'Brahmasatyam Jaganmithya'. That is, "Brahma is truth; the world is illusion." Nothing exists in this world except Brahma (the soul of the universe or God). The world and all the material objects that we see around us are illusion. They are just perception or Maya. Mayavada is the basic element of Advaita philosophy.

The word Advaita means 'non-dual' or 'one'. Shankara argues that the soul (the soul of man) and the Supreme Soul (the soul of the universe) are not two, but one. The soul is a part of the Supreme Soul. Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahma) and Tattvamasmi (You are the same) are the words that indicate this concept.

Shankaracharya tried to reform Hinduism. He is considered to have organized Hinduism into its present form. He severely criticized the rituals and practices of the divine religion and the Mimamsakas. Although he criticized Buddhism, he adopted many ideas from it. Therefore, Shankara is often called the 'hidden Buddha'.

Shankaracharya borrowed the concept of 'Sannyasi Math' from Buddhism. He established four Mutts (monasteries) in four parts of India. They are given below.

(1) 'Jyotir Math' in Badrinath

(2) 'Govardham Math' in Puri

(3) 'Sharad Math' in Dwarka

(4) Sringeri Math (on the banks of Tungabhadra-Karnataka)

He established four small Maths in Thrissur, Kerala. Vadakkemath, Thekkamath, Naduvilmath, and Adhila Math

Shankaracharya's teachings provided an intellectual foundation for Hinduism. The ashrams and Math he established also contributed to a well-organized organizational structure for Hinduism.

Shankaracharya's major works are Atma bodha, Mohamugdhara, Vivekachudamani, and Sivananda Lahari. He also wrote commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra.

Ramanujan and Madhavan

Ramanuja was born in Sriperumbudur near Kanchi. He was a proponent of "Vishishta-dvaita". Vishishta-dvaita was a religious philosophy. It accepted three ultimate realities: God, soul, and matter (the universe). In Ramanujan's view, only one of these three realities was independent. That was God. The other two realities were dependent on God. Ramanujan's contribution was the idea of ​​a just and loving personal God whom man could pray to, worship, and seek forgiveness.

Madhavan of Udupi was a devotee of Vishnu. He rejected Ramanujan's Vishishta-dvaita. He upheld the dualism based on the Bhagavata Purana.

Veerashaiva Movement

In the 12th century, another religious movement emerged in South India. It is called Veerashaiva movement. It is also known as the Lingayat movement. Its founders are Basava and Chinnabasava. They lived in the palace of the Kalachuri kings of Karnataka. Lingayat is another form of Shaivism. The Lingayats, who were worshippers of Shaivism, rejected fasting, pilgrimage, and sacrifices. The Lingayats were against the caste system and child marriage. They supported widow remarriage.