Indian Independence Movement - 1857 to 1947

Indian Independence Movement - 1857 to 1947

Indian Independence Movement

Indian Independence Movement began with the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. It ended with independence of India from British rule on August 15, 1947. The Indian National Congress, which led India to independence, was formed in 1885. The first political party in India, the Congress, is known as the largest democratic political party in the world and is currently the oldest political party in India. The founding session of the Congress was held from 28 to 31 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. 72 delegates attended. The founder of the Congress was the Britisher Allan Octavian Hume. The first session of the Congress was presided over by W.C. Banerjee; the first president of the Congress was W.C. Banerjee.

Bengal Partition

Since 1765, Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha had been a single region in British India. Bengal, which was ahead in size and wealth, was divided into two on July 20, 1905, citing administrative convenience. Lord Curzon was behind this. This division was part of the British policy of 'divide and rule'. With the partition, Bengal became two parts, a Muslim-majority region and a Hindu-majority region. The people of Bengal observed October 16, the day of partition, as a day of mourning. They tied rakhi, sang Vande Mataram, and took a dip in the Ganges and took a pledge of brotherhood. Rabindranath Tagore composed the national anthem 'Amar Sonar Bangla' for that day. Years later, this was made the national anthem of Bangladesh in 1972.

Bengali leaders started the Swadeshi movement to express the feelings of the people. The Swadeshi movement was a great success. It started textile mills, soap and match box factories, handloom weaving mills, national banks, insurance companies, etc. Nationalist poetry, prose, journalism, etc. flourished. National education was spread. Nationalists in Bengal and newspapers like Amrit Bazar Patrika, Sanjeevani, Hitavadi, and Vasumathi strongly opposed the partition. As a result of political agitations, Bengal was reunified in 1911. The capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi. Although the partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, this led to many communal agitations. Finally, Bengal was partitioned again in 1947. This region later became the country of Bangladesh.

Muslim League

After the partition of Bengal in 1905, East Bengal became a Muslim-majority state. During this time, many Muslim leaders had the idea of ​​forming a political organization. The instructions for this were given by Archibald, who was the principal of Aligarh University at that time. Following this, some leaders, led by the Nawab of Dhaka, Salimullah Mohsin-ul-Mulk, submitted a memorandum to the then Viceroy Lord Minto. This is known as the 'Simla Memorandum'. Lord Minto promised the leaders that he would provide all possible support to the organization that was exclusively for Muslims. Accordingly, the 'Muslim League' was established in Dhaka on 30 December 1906. The strategic political policies of the British helped the growth of this organization.

Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement was an important movement that emerged as a protest against the partition of Bengal. The national movement reached the common people with this movement. It was not only foreign-made goods that people boycotted. All the schools, colleges, courts and government offices run by the British were boycotted. Many organizations emerged during this period to promote the Swadeshi movement. The Don Society, Swadesh Dhan Dhav, Anushilan, Suhrid, Sadhana, etc. were important in this. Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chandrapal, etc. led this movement. The leaders of the movement demanded freedom from foreign rule. The government adopted very strict repressive policies. In exchange for boycotting foreign-made goods, many indigenous manufacturing plants were started in India. Also, educated Indians started many educational institutions. Bengal Technical Institute, Bengal National College, etc. were the schools started during that time.

Surat Split

The main criticism that the Indian National Congress faced in the beginning was that it was an organization formed to divert the intense unrest of Indian society. Initially, the policy of the Congress was only 'constitutional struggle'. The independence of the country was not the declared goal of the Congress in the early days. All the early leaders of the Congress were moderates. However, by 1905, many people came forward against the 'political begging policies' of the party and a new section called 'extremists' emerged in the Congress. They declared that those who had led the national movement in the early days had failed.

In the 1906 session, the Indian National Congress split into moderates and extremists. The 1907 Congress session was held in Surat, where the moderates had a majority. In this, Rash Bihari Ghosh and the extremist Bal Gangadhar Tilak fought for the post of president, but Rash Bihari Ghosh was elected. The angry extremists boycotted the session and the moderates took over the Congress. This split had a negative impact on the functioning of the Congress. The extremists returned to the Congress in 1916.

Minto Morley Reforms (1909)

A time when anti-British sentiment in India was strong and the jails were filled with protesters. The British took action to avoid problems. The then Viceroy, Lord Minto, and the Secretary of State, Lord Morley, had to face a difficult period. The terrorist activities caused by the partition of Bengal, etc. and the measures taken to suppress them had created a very turbulent atmosphere in India. As a result of the deliberations and discussions conducted by Minto and Morley, who realized that the Indians could be satisfied only by giving them a greater share in the affairs of government, the Parliament passed an Act in A.D. 1909 - the Indian Councils Act 1909.

Provisions

1. The legislatures were enlarged. A system of electing a number of members was introduced. According to this administrative reform, one Indian was appointed to the Viceroy's Executive Council and two Indians were appointed to the Secretary of State Council.

2. Provision was made for an official majority in the Imperial Legislative Council, that is, the central legislative assembly, and an unofficial majority in the provincial assemblies, including elected and nominated members.

3. Separate constituencies were established for Hindus and Muslims.

Ghadar Party (Ghadar Movement)

The Urdu word Ghadar means 'revolution'. A fitting name for the organization of brave men who took up arms for the freedom of their country! This organization was founded in America in 1913. The goal was to mobilize Indians outside India to fight against Britain. The founders of the Ghadar Movement were Dr. Panduranga Sadashiva and Pandit Kashi Ram. Its headquarters was the 'Yugantar' ashram in San Francisco. When Britain's attention was diverted from India during the First World War, the Ghadar Party decided to launch an armed rebellion in India and make India independent.

The main leaders were Lala Hardayal, Bhai Paramanand, Sohan Singh Bhakna and Ram Chandra. They decided on February 21, 1915, as the Revolution Day. Before that, Rash Bihari Bose, Vishnu Ganesh Pinkal, Sachin Sanyal and others came to Punjab and camped there. But, in the meantime, the British got wind of the secret of the art through spies. Before the revolutionaries had time to do anything, the British army captured all the leaders. Many were killed. Many were exiled. Thus, the move of the patriots failed. This move was betrayed by a member of the revolutionary army.

Revolutionary Movement in India

Revolutionary movements were aggressive movements that grew parallel to the national movements. There were many brave revolutionaries who fought and sacrificed their lives to drive out the British through armed struggle. Let us get to know some of the important revolutionary movements among them.

The British dealt with the Swadeshi movement brutally, and there were nationwide protests against the British's actions, which included beating and imprisoning leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Surendranath Banerjee. The revolutionaries decided to violently oust the rule that was violating the law and destroying civil rights. They were inspired by revolutionary ideas from abroad. Newspapers like Aurobindo Ghosh's Vande Mataram also supported these movements. In 1897, Damodar Hari Chapetkar and Balakrishna Hari Chapetkar, known as the Chapetkar brothers, entered the revolutionary movement by killing the traitorous officials Rand and Amherst in Pune. Let's get to know other important revolutionary movements.

Mitra Melan - This was an organization started in Maharashtra in 1899 by Veeradamodara Savarkar, his brother Ganesh Savarkar and some friends. They assassinated Jackson, the District Magistrate of Nashik.

Anushilan Samiti - This organization was founded in Bengal in 1902. Its main leaders were Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Jatindranath Banerjee and Pramod Mittar. Anushilan Samiti had a unit in Dhaka. Piland Das was the main leader in Dhaka.

Yugantar Party - This organization, founded by Hem Chandradas, also had a newspaper named 'Yugantar'. Bhupendranath Dutt was the founder of the newspaper. The members of this organization were accused in the Alipore Conspiracy Case.

Bharat Mata Association - Chidambaram Pillai's main supporters were Vanchinatha Iyer, Subrahmanya Siva and Neelakanta Brahmachari. The Bharat Mata Association was a revolutionary movement started by Neelakanta Brahmachari and Vanchinatha Iyer. Vanchinatha Iyer shot and killed Tirunelveli British Collector in a train, who had sentenced the righteous Chidambaram Pillai. He committed suicide with the same gun without being caught by the police.

Bharat Mata Society - The leaders of this organization, which was established in Punjab, were J.M. Chatterjee, Lala Hardyal, Ajit Singh and Suni Amba Prasad.

Suhrid Samiti - This was a revolutionary party that worked in the area of ​​Mymensingh in Bengal.

Other important organizations - Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisali, Bradi Samiti of Faridpur, Paris Group, Indian Independence League, Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha formed on the initiative of Bhagat Singh, and many other organizations led revolutionary activities from within and outside India during this period. Along with innumerable revolutionaries like Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chakki, some of the individuals who should be remembered are Shyamji Krishna Varma, Madanlal Dingram, S. R. Rane, V.V.S. Iyer, Tarakanath and others. Most of these revolutionary movements grew in Bengal and Maharashtra. Many people, known and unknown, have given their lives for these movements.

Home Rule Movement

The Indian Home Rule Movement was formed in 1916 by the princely states demanding autonomy from British rule. Tilak formed the Home Rule League at the Bombay Provincial Conference held in Belgaum in April 1916. Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement in September 1916 with its headquarters in Adyar, Madras. Both the leagues had their own areas of activity. Tilak and Annie Besant traveled all over India to spread the demand for Home Rule. Tilak had started an English publication called “Maratha” and a Marathi newspaper called “Kesari” to promote the Home Rule Movement. Annie Besant also published the newspapers “New India” and “Common Wheel”. With the publication of the Montagu-Chelmsford Plan of Administrative Reforms in July 1918, the Home Rule movement began to lose its relevance. In 1926, Mahatma Gandhi was elected as the All-India President of the Home Rule League. Within the next year, the Home Rule Movement officially merged with the Indian National Congress.

Lucknow Pact

In the First World War, Britain attacked the Muslim country of Turkey. With this, the Muslim League, which had been loyal to Britain, turned against Britain. They decided to join hands with the Congress. The Congress session held in Lucknow in 1916 was very important. At this conference, the extremists and the moderates decided to work together. The agreement that came into effect at that time was the Lucknow Pact. It is also known as the “Congress-League Plan”. The main proposals put forward as part of the plan of the Lucknow Pact were,

1. Give self-government to India.

2. Give Indians a majority in the council members. Also give them powers.

3. Ensure Muslim representation in the council.

4. Form separate constituencies, give them priority, and give the members the power to accept or reject laws or decisions.

The Lucknow Pact was submitted to the government in November 1916.

Champaran Satyagraha

Gandhi's first experiment in India with Satyagraha took place in Champaran, Bihar. The indigo farmers of Champaran were exploited and oppressed by European plantation owners. The farmers were forced to grow indigo in place of other crops on their land. They were also forced to pay the price fixed by the indigo plantation owners. In 1917, Gandhiji reached Champaran and made a detailed inquiry into the condition of the farmers. Although the authorities ordered him to leave the district, he did not give in. He continued his investigation in defiance of government orders. Gandhiji worked to ensure that the farmers got security of tenure and freedom to grow the crops of their choice. Then, Gandhiji, who had investigated the grievances of the farmers, was arrested and put on trial in court. Finally, the government appointed a commission of inquiry. The commission accepted most of the demands of the farmers. Thus, Gandhiji was able to succeed in India's first experiment in Satyagraha.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike

In 1918, Gandhiji led two strikes in his native Gujarat. One in Ahmedabad and the other in Kheda. In Ahmedabad, Gandhiji intervened in a wage dispute between the mill owners and workers. The mill workers in Ahmedabad went on strike in 1919, demanding a wage increase. Gandhiji took up the issue. He began a hunger strike until death, demanding a wage increase for the workers and improvement in their working conditions. Finally, the mill owners agreed to a compromise. They agreed to a 35 percent increase in the wages of the workers.

Kheda Satyagraha

Gandhiji fought for the farmers in Kheda. The farmers of Kheda had suffered massive crop failure due to drought. Following this, the farmers demanded a reduction in land tax, but the government refused to grant it. Gandhiji intervened in this issue. He asked the farmers to refuse to pay taxes until the land tax was reduced. Finally, the government accepted the farmers' demand. Gandhiji withdrew from the Satyagraha.

Note: The Satyagraha movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad were the preludes to Gandhiji's entry into the Indian national movement. These movements helped him to understand the problems of the people. All these movements helped him to get close to the masses. His sympathy for the poor won him a great place in the hearts of the people.

Montagu Chelmsford Reforms

Edwin Montagu was a man who came as the Indian Secretary with the declaration that 'India should not be oppressed anymore. They should be given self-government'. With the help of the Indian Viceroy Chelmsford, he prepared a reform document. Everyone had high hopes for this. But most of it was a proposal that would cause difficulties for the Indians. Reforms that retained sovereignty for the English did not help to bring about any change.

Rowlatt Act

During the First World War (1914-18), the British government imposed censorship on the press to crush the national movement. It also introduced a law to imprison national activists without trial. In 1919, the government passed the Rowlatt Acts to suppress public opposition. These laws were passed on the recommendation of a committee headed by Justice Sidney Rowlatt. The Rowlatt Acts gave the government the power to arrest and imprison any person without trial. This law was a weapon for the British authorities to effectively deal with the protests related to the freedom struggle. Censorship on the press continued.

The Rowlatt Acts were a blow to Gandhiji. These black laws broke his faith in the justice of the British. They also brought him into the national movement. Gandhiji launched a strong movement against the Rowlatt Acts. Within a short time, it spread throughout the country. Gandhiji called for a nationwide movement and hartal against the Rowlatt Acts. Under Gandhiji's leadership, shops and schools were closed all over India on April 6th, and people protested. Strikes and demonstrations were widely organized. Public life came to a standstill. It was the Rowlatt Acts that made Gandhiji a true national leader. The British government repealed the Rowlatt Acts in 1922.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The protests against the Rowlatt Acts were most intense in Punjab. Many people from Punjab had fought for the British in World War I. Naturally, the people of Punjab reacted strongly against these black laws. The government decided to suppress the popular uprising by arresting national leaders. Gandhiji, who had set out for Punjab, was arrested on the way and put in a prison. Many local Congress leaders were also arrested. It was during the protests against the Rowlatt Acts that the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, one of the most heinous political massacres in history, took place.

On April 13, 1919, a large crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. They had gathered to protest the arrest of national leaders Dr. Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal. The meeting was peaceful. While the protest was going on, General Dyer, the army chief in Amritsar, came with his troops and fired on the unarmed crowd. More than four hundred people were killed in this massacre. Hundreds of others were injured.

The Jallianwala Bagh tragedy shook Gandhiji. He also lost whatever faith he had in the British. He declared that 'any cooperation with this demonic government is sinful'. The Amritsar tragedy was one of the main reasons that motivated Gandhiji to start the Non-Cooperation Movement.

The government appointed the Hunter Commission to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh incident. Although Dyer was found guilty, the commission did not recommend any punishment against Dyer. Later, Dyer, the main mastermind of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, was shot dead by Udham Singh.

Khilafat Movement

Another event that prompted Gandhiji to start the Non-Cooperation Movement was the Khilafat Movement. A large section of Muslims viewed the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader or 'Caliph'. After the First World War, the Turkish Empire was divided and the Sultan lost a large part of his power. The disintegration of Turkey and the decline in the status of the Sultan hurt the Muslims. In 1919, Muslims in India started the Khilafat Movement to regain the lost powers of the Sultan of Turkey.

The Khilafat Movement (1919–1920) was a movement of Indian Muslims. On 21 September 1919, the first All-India Khilafat Conference was held in Lucknow. Its main leaders were Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali (Ali brothers) and Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad. The main demands put forward by the Khilafat movement were as follows.

The control of the holy places of the Muslims of the former Ottoman Empire should be given to the Turkish Sultan or Caliph. Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine should be kept under the sovereignty of the Muslims. The Caliph should be given as much territory as is necessary to protect the Islamic faith. The All India Khilafat Conference decided to observe 17th October 1919 as All India Khilafat Day. The Khilafat movement had created a great stir in Kerala.

Note: Gandhiji supported the Khilafat movement. He was elected as the President of the All India Khilafat Committee. He saw the Khilafat movement as a golden opportunity to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity. He hoped that by linking the Non-Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat, the two religious communities of India, Hindus and Muslims, could come together and end colonial rule. In 1920, Gandhiji formally announced a non-cooperation program in support of the Khilafat movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement was Gandhiji's first major struggle against British rule. 'Non-cooperation' was an element of Gandhiji's concept of Satyagraha. Initially, he adopted a stance of cooperating with the British. He had a firm belief in the justice of the British. When the First World War broke out, he expressed his loyalty to the British by appealing to the people to join the army. But some events in 1919 - the Rowlatt Acts, the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy, and the Khilafat Movement - changed Gandhiji's attitude towards the British. These events motivated Gandhiji to become a fighter and to non-cooperate with the British. It was these same events that motivated him to start the Non-Cooperation Movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement had three objectives - to find a solution to the Punjab problem, to resolve the Khilafat problem, and to achieve Swaraj. The Non-Cooperation Movement was a political program based on non-violence. It had both positive and negative programs. The positive programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were - Swadeshi propaganda, anti-unionism, fostering Hindu-Muslim friendship, prohibition of liquor, nationalization of education, and promotion of charkha and khadi. The negative programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were generally of a radical nature. Boycott was its hallmark. They were - boycotting government educational institutions, courts, legislatures, official ceremonies, foreign clothes and other products. Also, giving up government jobs, seals, titles, and honors, refusing to pay taxes, etc. During the Non-Cooperation Movement, which began in 1920 and lasted until 1922, the British government arrested and imprisoned thousands of Indians. In March 1922, Gandhiji was also arrested on charges of sedition. After a historic trial, he was sentenced to six years in prison.

Chauri Chaura Incident

The Chauri Chaura incident took place at a time when the Non-Cooperation Movement was on the verge of victory. In February 1922, a group of Satyagrahis were picketing a liquor shop as part of the Non-Cooperation Movement in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh. Three people were killed in the ensuing police firing. The policemen who rushed to the station were surrounded by a mob. People were shouting that they should apologize for shooting innocent people. Not only did they not apologize, but the policemen allegedly provoked the Satyagrahis. Saying "kill instead of kill", the people set fire to the police station and more than twenty policemen were killed. Many of those caught for this were hanged and the rest were exiled. Gandhiji was very saddened by the actions of the mob. With that, the Congress stopped the Non-Cooperation Movement. There was discontent within the Congress itself over Gandhi's abrupt end to the Non-Cooperation Movement. Subhash Chandra Bose called it a national disaster.

Simon Commission Boycott

The Simon Commission was a seven-member commission appointed by the British government in November 1927 to investigate and report on the functioning of the administrative system implemented under the Montagu-Chelmsford Act of 1919. John Simon was its chairman. Clement Attlee, who later became the British Prime Minister, was one of the members. There was no Indian representation in the commission. The exclusion of Indians from the commission angered national leaders. Political parties such as the Congress, the Muslim League, and the Hindu Mahasabha boycotted the Simon Commission. Demonstrations were held all over India against the Simon Commission.

On the day the Simon Commission arrived in India, on 3 February 1928, an all-India hartal was declared with the slogan 'Simon Go Back'. The government suppressed the popular movement vigorously. The police brutally beat the protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in the brutal lathicharge and later died. Despite the popular protests, the Simon Commission continued its work and submitted its report in 1930. Bhagat Singh and his associates later killed the police officer Saunders, who led the lathicharge.

Bardoli Satyagraha

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a peasant movement led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in Bardoli taluk, Gujarat, in 1928. It was a civil disobedience movement by the farmers of Bardoli against the British government against the increase in land tax. This movement was against the government's decision to increase land tax by thirty percent. It started as a tax refusal movement. Finally, the government agreed to negotiate. The tax increase was reduced by six percent and the confiscated agricultural land was returned to the farmers. Thus, the Bardoli Satyagraha was a great success. This movement had the blessings of Gandhi. The success of the Bardoli Satyagraha inspired Gandhiji to start a national civil disobedience movement against the British government.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association

The HSRI is a revolutionary organization formed in 1928. In 1928, a group of young men inspired by socialist ideas reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association and formed the HSRA. It was led by Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, B.K. Simha, Shiva Varma and Jayadeva Kumar. The main objective was to establish an Indian republic through organized armed struggle. The organization remained active until 1931. On 17 December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Chandrashekhar Azad killed Saunders, a police officer involved in the Lahore Lathicharge. Chandrashekhar Azad then died a heroic death in a single encounter with the police at Alfred Park in Allahabad. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged on 31 March 1931.

Nehru Report

The Congress session held in Calcutta in 1928 requested the government to grant Dominion status to India. The All-Party Conference held in Delhi under the leadership of Motilal Nehru appointed a sub-committee to prepare a draft constitution. Motilal Nehru was the chairman of this committee and Jawaharlal Nehru was the secretary. The constitution prepared by this committee later became known as the Nehru Report. It envisaged a self-governing Dominion status for India. Nehru submitted the report on 10 August 1928. The report could not be passed at the All-Party Conference held in Calcutta in December 1928 due to the obstacles raised by the communal leaders of the Hindu Mahasabha, the Muslim League and the Sikh League.

Lahore Session (1929)

In December 1929, the annual session of the Congress was held in Lahore. The Lahore session of the Congress was historic. The reasons for its importance are as follows. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress. It was a sign of transferring the leadership of the Congress to the younger generation. The Lahore session passed a historic resolution declaring that the ultimate goal of the Congress was 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence. The Lahore session decided to celebrate January 26, 1930, as Independence Day throughout the country. The Lahore session also decided to start a civil disobedience movement under the leadership of Gandhiji.

Gandhiji put forward some suggestions for celebrating Independence Day.

1. He suggested that the declaration of independence should be made in all villages and all cities together. He also requested that meetings be held at all places at the same time.

2. The time of the meetings should be announced in the traditional manner by blowing drums.

3. The Independence Day celebrations should continue with the hoisting of the national flag.

4. The rest of the day should be spent on constructive activities like spinning, serving the untouchables, Hindu-Muslim unity, and the prohibition movement. Gandhiji declared that freedom was an inalienable right of the Indian people, and that if any government tried to take it away or suppress it, the people had the right to change or abolish that government.

On January 26, 1930, Independence Day was celebrated across the country by hoisting the tricolor flag and singing patriotic songs.

Poorna Swaraj Resolution

The Lahore session declared that the aim of the Congress was to achieve Poorna Swaraj. The Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed at the historic Lahore session in December 1929. It was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. The session also decided to celebrate 26 January 1930 as India's Independence Day. Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the Indian tricolour for the first time on the banks of the Rabi River. It was also decided that on 26 January, the tricolour should be hoisted throughout the country and that 'any further submission to foreign rule is a crime against God and man'. It was in memory of this day that 26 January was later celebrated as the Republic Day of independent India.

Civil Disobedience Movement

The Civil Disobedience Movement was the second major movement led by Gandhiji against British rule. Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by violating the Salt Act. Gandhiji had prepared a detailed programme for the movement before starting it. Immediately after the Independence Day celebrations, he presented his “Eleven Demands” to the British government, warning that if these demands were not accepted, the Congress would launch a civil disobedience movement against the government. But the Viceroy did not accept any of these demands. In February 1930, the Congress Working Committee met at Sabarmati and authorized Gandhiji to launch a civil disobedience movement. Gandhiji adopted a new weapon to fight against the government. He announced that he would launch a civil disobedience movement by violating the Salt Act. The Salt Act was one of the most hated laws in British India. Gandhiji's decision to launch a civil disobedience movement with the salt tax as the central issue was a strategic move. Gandhiji calculated that through this, he could divert public anger against the British. Thus, the Salt Act became a major issue in the Indian freedom struggle.

The civil disobedience movement spread rapidly across the country. Gandhiji's call for civil disobedience inspired all sections of Indian society to express their anger against the colonial rule. Women, farmers, workers, students, lawyers and other sections of the population enthusiastically joined this movement. Lawlessness, tax refusal, picketing of liquor shops, hartals, and strikes shook the country. Boycott of government institutions became an integral part of this movement. Apart from the official programs led by Gandhiji and the Congress, other forms of protest also emerged during the agitation. In many parts of the country, farmers violated the British forest laws. These laws denied farmers and their cattle access to the forests. They also refused to pay land tax and rent. Workers in the cities went on strike. Lawyers boycotted British courts. Students refused to attend government-run educational institutions. The most important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of women. They participated in marches along with men.

The British tried to suppress the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress was banned. Many leaders, including Gandhiji, were arrested. Within a month, more than 60,000 Indians were arrested and imprisoned. In March 1931, the Civil Disobedience Movement was temporarily suspended following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. After the failure of the Second Round Table Conference, Gandhiji resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement. Then the then Viceroy, Lord Wellington, took strict measures to suppress it. Gandhiji was arrested and the Congress was banned. This made it difficult for the Congress to continue the agitation. In April 1934, the Congress finally withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Salt Satyagraha

The Salt Act was one of the most hated laws in British India. Under this act, the government had the monopoly on the production and sale of salt. Salt was an essential part of the people's diet. Therefore, it was indispensable for every Indian family. But the British did not allow them to produce salt even for their own needs. Therefore, they were forced to buy salt from shops at high prices. Moreover, the government doubled the salt tax. Naturally, public anger flared up against the government's monopoly on salt production. Thus, the Salt Act became a major issue in the Indian freedom struggle. Realizing that salt tax was more discriminatory than other taxes, Gandhiji decided to launch the Salt Satyagraha.

The British failed to realize the importance of the challenge Gandhiji had raised. Although Gandhiji had given prior notice of his Dandi March to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, he ignored it. On March 12, 1930, Gandhiji began his famous Dandi March. Along with 78 selected followers, he marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a distance of about 200 miles. After a 24-day march, he reached Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat. On April 6, 1930, Gandhiji and his followers broke the Salt Law and made salt on the Dandi beach. Thus, he became a criminal in the eyes of the law. Meanwhile, people in many parts of the country violated the salt law. The British government, alarmed by the increasing popularity of the Dandi March, imprisoned Gandhiji and Jawaharlal Nehru.

Lahore Conspiracy Case Trial

The Lahore Conspiracy Case is related to the struggle against British imperialism led by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt, members of the HSRA. It is also known as the Lahore Trial. The Central Legislative Assembly passed a Public Safety Bill restricting civil liberties. In protest against this, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb into the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929. It was not intended to kill anyone. Their aim was to make the deaf hear. Bhagat Singh and Dutt did not make any attempt to escape. Their aim was to use the court as a propaganda tool when they were arrested and tried in court. They also saw it as an opportunity to spread the ideology and program of the HSRA among the people. Thus, the Lahore Conspiracy Trial was held. The court sentenced both of them to death. They were hanged on 23 March 1931.

First Round Table Conference

After the Labour Party came to power in Britain, it was announced that a new constitution would be prepared for India. It was decided to hold a Round Table Conference in London to hear the opinions of various political parties in India. The Dandi March was an eye-opener for the British. Britain realized the need to give Indians more representation in the government. With this aim, the British government convened Round Table Conferences in London. The British convened the First Round Table Conference when the Civil Disobedience Movement was in full swing.

The first Round Table Conference, which began in London on November 12, 1930, was presided over by the then British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. 16 representatives from British politics, 58 political leaders from British India, and 16 representatives from the princely states participated. The prominent participants were Aga Khan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar, etc. Representatives of the Muslim League and the Depressed Classes participated. This conference was boycotted by all the prominent political leaders of India. The Congress also boycotted this conference.

Gandhi - Irwin Pact

It became clear to the British that the discussion of constitutional reforms without the participation of the Congress was meaningless. Therefore, the British government tried to reach a compromise with the Congress. In January 1931, Gandhiji was released from prison. The Viceroy, Lord Irwin, invited him for meeting. After many consultations, Gandhiji and Lord Irwin signed a pact on 5 March 1931. This is known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact or the Delhi Pact.

As per the terms of the pact, Gandhiji agreed to stop the civil disobedience movement. He also agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. The government agreed to release all prisoners except those who had been involved in violent acts during the civil disobedience period. Indians were allowed to make salt in the coastal areas. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was strongly criticized by the nationalists because the government did not accept any of the demands put forward by the civil disobedience movement. Gandhiji did not receive any assurance from the Viceroy that political freedom would be granted to Indians. Gandhiji received only an assurance that all such goals could be discussed. The government did not even accept the demand for commutation of the death sentence of Bhagat Singh and his comrades (Sukhdev and Rajaguru) to life imprisonment.

Second Round Table Conference

The British government convened the Second Round Table Conference in London in September 1931. Following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the Indian National Congress attended the second session held in London. Gandhiji attended this conference as the sole representative of the Congress. The Congress reiterated that its goal was complete independence. However, Gandhiji's claim that the Congress represented the whole of India was challenged by three groups - Muslim League, the princes and Ambedkar. The Muslim League claimed that they stood for the interests of the Muslim minority. The princes also claimed that the Congress had no support in their areas. The prominent jurist and thinker B.R. Ambedkar argued that the Congress did not represent the lower castes.

The conference was prolonged until December due to endless discussions on communal issues, but the discussions failed. There was no discussion at the conference on granting independence or dominion status to India. The conference also failed to reach a consensus on the issue of 'communal representation'. Following this, Gandhi returned to India without any positive results and resumed civil disobedience. To suppress it, the then Viceroy Wellington arrested Gandhiji and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and banned the Congress. The strike was officially called off on 7 April 1934.

Communal Award

After 1932, Gandhiji intensified his work for the expulsion of untouchables. In August 1932, the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award. The Communal Award was to provide separate reserved constituencies for Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and the Depressed Classes. Gandhiji opposed the treatment of the Depressed Classes as a separate class.

On 20 September 1932, Gandhiji began a hunger strike in Yerwada Jail to withdraw the Communal Award. Gandhiji demanded that the Depressed Classes should contest and win from the general Hindu constituencies. Gandhiji believed that only then would their social progress be effective. Subsequently, negotiations were held under the leadership of B.R. Ambedkar to change the provisions of the Communal Award. As part of this, the Pune Pact become success.

The British government accepted the Pune Pact and Gandhiji ended his hunger strike. According to this, the special reserved constituencies for the Depressed Classes were abolished and their reserved seats in the general Hindu constituencies were doubled. He then undertook an all-India journey for the expulsion of the Untouchables. Gandhiji started a newspaper called 'Harijan' for the progress of those suffering from untouchability. Gandhiji formed an organization called Harijan Sevak Sangh for the upliftment of the Harijans.

Poona Pact

Gandhiji started a hunger strike in Yerwada Jail to withdraw the communal award. As part of this, the Poona Pact become success. The British government accepted the Poona Pact and Gandhiji ended his hunger strike.

Main provisions of the Poona Pact

■ General constituencies will continue

■ 148 seats will be reserved for the backward classes instead of 71.

■ 20% reservation of seats for Harijans in the Central Legislative Assembly.

■ Depressed members to be elected by unanimity.

■ Adequate representation of Harijans in public services and local bodies.

■ Special financial assistance for literacy work of Harijans.

Third Round Table Conference

The Third Round Table Conference, which began in London on 17 November 1932, was attended by only 46 delegates who had pledged allegiance to the government. Muhammad Ali, Jinnah, Aga Khan and B.R. Ambedkar were present. Congress representatives did not attend this conference. This conference formulated some general principles for the future Indian Constitution. The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on the basis of the White Paper issued at the end of the Third Round Table Conference. The India Act of 1935 marked the beginning of representative government in India.

At this conference, Muslim delegates demanded the establishment of a 'Muslim State' in the northwestern part of India, an idea of ​​Rahmat Ali, a Muslim student at Cambridge. Rahmat Ali had suggested the name Pakistan for this state. He formed this name by combining the first letters of the place names of Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Sindh, and the last three letters of Balochistan. This word means 'holy land' in Urdu.

An Indian who participated in all three Round Table Conferences was B.R. Ambedkar. He participated as a representative of the Depressed Class.

Congress Socialist Party

Inspired by the Russian Revolution, socialist ideas began to spread in India by the 1930s. The Congress Socialist Party was formed in 1934 by socialist sympathizers of the Indian National Congress. It was known as the CSP. In May 1934, the All India Congress Socialist Conference was held in Patna under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan. Acharya Narendra Dev was the president. The first All India Conference of the Congress Socialist Party was held in Mumbai in October 1934. Sampurnananda was the president.

Government of India Act 1935

The India Act of 1935 introduced representative government in India. It brought about fundamental changes in the provinces. It ended the dual system of government that existed in the provinces and brought about local self-government. Under this act,

■ It provided for the establishment of a federal model of government at the Centre.

■ It provided for complete autonomy for the states.

■ It provided for dual governance at the centre.

■ It provided for a bicameral legislature in the provinces.

■ It provided for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India, the Public Service Commission and the Federal Court.

■ Burma was separated from India under this act.

This act granted limited voting rights. Elections were held in the provinces in 1937. The Congress achieved a resounding victory. The Congress was able to form ministries in eight of the eleven provinces. However, the Congress Prime Ministers had to work under the control and supervision of the British Governor.

In September 1939, World War II broke out. Gandhiji and Nehru had opposed Hitler and Nazism from the very beginning. They strongly condemned fascist atrocities. Naturally, they wanted to help Britain in the war against the fascist powers. They promised that the Congress would support Britain's war efforts if it promised to give India independence after the war. The government rejected this offer, and in protest, the Congress ministries in the provinces resigned in October 1939.

August Offer

In 1939, World War II began. In 1940, the situation of the Allies in World War II was critical. Germany invaded and conquered many European countries. Britain was under German attack. On this occasion, Congress declared that they were against fascism and Nazism. Then, the statement issued by the British Viceroy Linlithgow to gain Indian support is known as the August Offer. It had three main conditions. The Viceroy's Executive Council would be expanded to include Indian representatives, a War Advisory Council would be formed including British and Indians, and efforts would be made to formulate a constitution in the future. The main condition of this was that India would be given the status of a 'princely state' after the war. However, the Congress and the Muslim League rejected this. These promises are known as the 'August Offer'.

Individual Satyagraha

After realizing that Britain would not change its policy towards India, Gandhiji decided to start Individual Satyagraha. Congress was not interested in disrupting Britain's war preparations. That is why the movement was limited to Individual Satyagraha. On 17 October 1940, Acharya Vinoba Bhave started Individual Satyagraha. Between November 1940 and February 1941, many Congress leaders participated in the Satyagraha and were arrested.

Indian National Army - INA

There were many revolutionaries working abroad for India's independence. Rash Bihari Bose was the most important of them. In March 1942, Bose formed the Indian Independence League in Tokyo. In June 1942, Rash Behari Bose and Mohan Singh formed the Indian National Army at a conference in Bangkok. In July 1943, Subhash Chandra Bose took over the leadership of the INA. The first three brigades of the INA were named Gandhi, Azad and Nehru respectively. On 21 October 1943, the Provisional Government of Independent India was formed in Singapore under the leadership of Bose. Netaji was sworn in as the head of state. In 1944, Azad Hind National Bank was formed with the help of Japan. Netaji had previously minted currency notes for the independent government.

The aim of the INA was to capture India and liberate India from Britain with the help of Japan. On March 18, 1944, the INA crossed the border and entered India. They raised the tricolor flag on Indian soil. But as the tide of the war changed, the INA could not hold on. With the advance of Britain, the German army was crushed. The Japanese army suffered setbacks. The INA made a significant contribution to India's freedom struggle. INA proved that Indian women were also capable of fighting against the British

Cripps Mission

In 1942, Britain had a coalition government. Winston Churchill, the leader of the Conservative Party, was the Prime Minister. Churchill was a staunch imperialist. He was committed to preserving the British Empire in India at all costs. Therefore, he had no interest in granting India independence. However, the Labour members of the coalition government were sympathetic to India. They urged Churchill to negotiate with the Indians and find a solution to their problem. Meanwhile, Japan's entry into the war posed a great threat to the British. Japan had captured many countries in South-East Asia. With this, the war came to India's doorstep. In this situation, the British sincerely wanted to gain the support and cooperation of the Indians for the war effort.

In 1942, Churchill sent a mission to India, led by his cabinet member Stafford Cripps, to reach a compromise with Gandhiji and the Congress. But the negotiations between Cripps and the Congress failed. The Congress rejected Cripps's offer to grant India dominion status after the war. Gandhiji described this offer as 'A post-dated cheque on a crashing bank'. The Congress offered to cooperate with the British if an Indian was appointed as a member of the Viceroy's Executive Council for Defence, but this was not accepted. Thus, the Cripps mission failed.

Quit India Movement

After the failure of the Cripps mission, Gandhiji decided to launch his third movement against British rule. This movement is known as the "Quit India Movement". The Quit India Movement began in August 1942. The failure of the Cripps mission was the immediate cause of the genesis of this movement. Gandhiji demanded that the British leave India in an orderly and timely manner. The Congress accepted this idea. On 8 August 1942, the Congress session held in Bombay passed a resolution demanding that the British leave India immediately. The resolution stated that a mass movement would be launched under the leadership of Gandhiji to persuade the British to leave India by handing over power to the Indians. This resolution came to be known as the "Quit India Resolution". Gandhiji called on everyone to join the movement with the slogan "Do or Die".

But before the movement could begin, the government intervened. The next morning (9 August) all the top leaders, including Gandhiji, were arrested. Hearing about the Quit India Resolution and the arrest of the people's leaders, the people started the movement. The youth jumped into the movement. Protests and strikes broke out in all parts of the country. India became a land of riots. The people also engaged in destructive activities. They attacked and destroyed the symbols of British rule, such as police stations, post offices, railway tracks, bridges, etc. Strikes, hartals and demonstrations shook the country. Socialist leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan organized underground battles against the British. British rule collapsed in many places. Parallel "independent governments" were established in districts like Satara and Medinipur. The Quit India Movement had no recognized leadership or program. The angry people fought in their own way.

The government used all means to suppress the Quit India Movement, including lathicharge, firing, arrests, beatings, imprisonment, and torture. The government was able to suppress the movement only after a year of hard work. The Quit India Movement was a popular movement. Thousands of ordinary people joined the movement. It inspired young people to boycott colleges and go to jail. The Quit India Movement demonstrated the depth of national consciousness and the people's ability to struggle and make sacrifices. This movement convinced the British that the days of British rule in India were numbered. This prompted them to hold talks on the transfer of power. This movement caused the attention of the outside world to turn to the Indian question.

Wavell Plan & Simla Conference

The British government appointed Lord Wavell, the Governor-General, to hand over power to the Indians by electing an interim government. Following this, Lord Wavell announced the Wavell Plan on 14 June 1945. The Simla Conference was convened to discuss the Wavell Plan. The Simla Conference was held between 25 June and 14 July 1945. A 21-member delegation, consisting of representatives of the Congress, League, Sikhs, Depressed Classes, and European groups, participated in the Simla Conference under the chairmanship of Lord Wavell. On 14 July, the Viceroy declared the Wavell Plan a failure and closed it.

Key proposals of the Wavell Plan

◆ An interim government would be elected.

◆ Hindu and Muslim representation would be equal in the elected interim government.

◆ The interim government would be given autonomy over all departments except defense.

◆ The power to intervene in the departments would be limited to the Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief.

◆ The Governor General would have the power to veto the decisions of the elected government.

Reasons for the failure of the Wavell Plan

◆ Lord Wavell rejected Jinnah's demand that no Muslim who was not a member of the Muslim League should be given membership in the Viceroy's Council.

◆ The Simla Conference collapsed when the Congress and the Muslim League abstained from the meeting called to elect the members of the Council.

Royal Indian Navy Mutiny

Another legendary event in the history of the Indian freedom struggle was the mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy. The main reason was the opposition to the discriminatory behavior of the British commanders in the Navy. The naval mutiny began on 18 February 1948 on board the ship HMIS Talwar in Mumbai. On 19 February, the Central Naval Strike Committee was formed. The riot spread from Mumbai to other port cities. About 2,000 sailors, about 78 ships and many affiliated institutions joined the strike. The rioters received huge public support. About 250 people were killed in the riot, more than a thousand were injured and about 20,000 people lost their jobs. The riot, which lasted for six days from Monday, 18 February 1946 to Saturday, 23 February 1946, was called off following peace talks between Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Aruna Asaf Ali.

Cabinet Mission

In March 1946, Britain sent a three-member British Cabinet mission to India to discuss the terms of the transfer of power with Indian leaders. Pathik Lawrence, Sir Stafford, Cripps, A.V. Alexander and others were its members. After lengthy discussions with Indian leaders, the Cabinet Mission put forward its plan. It contained the following recommendations.

■ An Indian Union should be formed, including the British provinces and the princely states. India should remain united.

■ The Union should handle defense, foreign affairs, and communications. Other matters should be handled by the provinces and princely states.

■ The existing provinces would be divided into three groups, A, B, and C. Group A would include the Hindu-majority provinces. Group B would include the Muslim-majority provinces in the north-west. Group C would include the Muslim-majority provinces in the north-east, including Assam.

■ A Constituent Assembly would be convened for an independent Indian Union. This Assembly would be elected by the provincial assemblies.

■ An interim government would be formed at the Centre, comprising leaders of various political parties, until a constitution was drawn up.

Initially, all political parties accepted the plan of the Cabinet Mission. But this agreement did not last long. This was because the Congress and the League interpreted the objectives of the plan in conflict with each other. The League interpreted the “grouping” of the provinces as mandatory. The League also argued that the provinces in Groups B and C had the right to secede from the Union in the future. However, the Congress interpreted the grouping as optional. The Congress argued that the right to join any group should be left to the provinces. These opposing positions of the League and the Congress paved the way for the final failure of the Cabinet Mission plan. The League soon withdrew its support for the plan. With this, the Cabinet Mission's final attempt to solve the Indian problem without partitioning India failed.

Mountbatten Plan

On 20 February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee made a historic announcement. The government announced that the British would leave India by June 1948 and transfer power to the Indians. Following this, Lord Mountbatten was sent to India as the new Viceroy. From 24 March to mid-April 1947, he held talks with Indian leaders. He was convinced that the only way to solve the Indian problem was partition. He persuaded Congress to accept partition. The Mountbatten Plan proposed the division of India into two independent nations - the Indian Union and Pakistan. The plan was finalised by V.P. Menon. The Mountbatten Plan was announced on 3 June. Hence, it is also known as the June 3 Plan. According to the plan, those who wanted to leave the Indian Union would be free to do so and those who wanted to join the Indian Union would be free to do so. The princely states would be free to join the Indian Union or Pakistan. The Congress and the Muslim League accepted the Mountbatten Plan. In July 1947, the British Parliament passed the 'Indian Independence Act', giving legitimacy to the Mountbatten Plan.

Indian Independence Act 1947

In July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act. With this, two independent countries, India and Pakistan, came into being. On August 14, a new nation called Pakistan came into being. On August 15, India became independent.

Integration of Princely States

One of the major challenges after independence was the integration of the Indian princely states. This task was accomplished by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, known as the Iron Man of India, and his secretary V.P. Menon. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, through his "Iron Fist in a Velvet Glove" policies, integrated all the princely states into the Indian Union. Of the 565 princely states, the vast majority agreed to join the Indian Union. Only Junagadh, Travancore, Kashmir, and Hyderabad showed reluctance to join the Indian Union. Jammu and Kashmir was the most complex issue to deal with among the princely states. The king delayed taking a decision on joining India. Meanwhile, the Pakistani army invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja sought India's help. After the king agreed to sign the Instrument of Accession with India, India sent troops to Kashmir.